Die Ergebnisse deiner Analyse der Rede (wie in der Anleitung beschrieben) solltest du in einer bestimmten Struktur präsentieren. In line with previous research that brought together approaches on metaphor and framing (e.g., Burgers et al., Reference Burgers, Konijn and Steen2016; Semino et al., Reference Semino, Demjén and Demmen2018), we therefore argue that the two levels of analysis need to be considered complementary. One of the main advantages of using a meta-analysis is that it is possible to test the influence of each of these factors separately. List of United States political catchphrases - Wikipedia To be able to deal with the diversity in metaphors and political positions, we coded the effect direction as positive when the dependent variable shifted in line with the position implied by the metaphorical frame (e.g., when the natural analogy frame led to a more positive attitude towards geo-engineering, or when the strategy frame led to a more negative attitude towards news), and negative when the dependent variable shifted in the other direction (e.g., when, contrary to expectations, the natural analogy frame led to a more negative attitude towards geo-engineering, or when the strategy frame led to a more positive attitude towards news). According to this theory, both conservatives and liberals reason metaphorically about the nation as a family, government as the parent, and citizens as children. Die Studienkreisleitung Ihres Standorts wird sich mit Ihnen in Verbindung setzen um einen Beratungstermin zu vereinbaren falls Sie dies noch nicht online getan haben. Similarly, Joris (Reference Joris2016) examined whether using war-related words (e.g., “under fire”, “losing ground”, “casualties”) to describe the euro crisis as war (vs. a literal description) decreased support for the European Union. - direct adress Stylistic devices Dazu gehören zum Beispiel: Unabhängig vom Anlass ist das Ziel einer political speech in der Regel gleich: Der Redner will das Publikum darin von seiner Einstellung überzeugen und zu einem bestimmten Handeln auffordern. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties. Bevor du deine Analyse beginnst, solltest du dich über die Rede informieren. While both approaches measure the same phenomenon (i.e., metaphorical reasoning), the choice for one of the two levels of analysis (i.e., words vs. concepts) can lead to different outcomes when applied to the same data. The effect size of metaphorical-concepts frames on beliefs was a Cohen’s d of 0.33 (k = 7, SE = 0.15, 95% CI [0.04, 0.62], Z = 2.23, p < .05), compared to a Cohen’s d of 0.20 for attitudes (k = 35, SE = 0.04, 95% CI [0.13, 0.27], Z = 5.30, p < .001), but this difference in effect size was not significant (Q = 0.73, p = .39). AlexxxDerPole. 8 terms. Conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, Reference Lakoff and Johnson1980) thus proposes that conceptual metaphors help people to make sense of the world around them, but often in different ways. The analysis showed that the reading level of congressional speeches made by both Republican and Democratic legislators increased consistently from the eighth-grade reading level in the 19th century, to the 10th-grade level in the 1970s. Second, at least one of the independent variables in the study was metaphorical framing. +49 (0) 2 34/97 60-01 | Fax +49 (0) 2 34/97 60-300 | E-Mail info@studienkreis.de, Englisch Render date: 2023-06-04T11:34:39.232Z . Ob die Rede in Umgangssprache (colloquial language) oder gehobener Sprache (sublime language) verfasst ist, kann Aufschluss darüber geben, an welche Zielgruppe sie gerichtet ist. Diese verwenden Redner gezielt, um auf ihr Publikum einzuwirken. When individuals adopt the line of reasoning as suggested by the metaphorical frame, this is considered evidence for theories like conceptual metaphor theory because these results demonstrate that individuals indeed use metaphors as an important mode of reasoning (Lakoff & Johnson, Reference Lakoff and Johnson1980). Ein Redner kann seine eigene Position auch aufwerten, indem er einen, Umgekehrt kann der Redner sein Publikum aber auch. The effects on beliefs were larger than on attitudes, and no effects on behavioral intentions were found. However, conceptual metaphors do not necessarily have to be expressed through linguistic metaphors. Even though these limitations warrant some caution in the interpretation of the study’s findings, they do not undermine the theoretical and empirical value of this meta-analysis. For this reason, the current study identifies studies on metaphorical framing at the level of words as well as concepts. - anaphora We also coded two types of study characteristics to include as moderator variables in the meta-analysis: (1) context factors and (2) framing topics. Reuchamps, Min Has data issue: false Jong Tjien Fa, Melanie lernst? zusammen. While previous overviews have presented a good amount of empirical evidence for the persuasiveness of metaphorical frames compared to non-metaphorical frames at the level of language (Sopory & Dillard, Reference Sopory and Dillard2002; Van Stee, Reference Van Stee2018), we still know little about how these effects compare to those at the level of concepts. However, the trim and fill analysis found only one potentially missing study on the left side of the funnel plot. Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. Metaphorical-words frames had a significantly larger effect on beliefs, with a Cohen’s d of 0.27 (k = 16, SE = 0.11, 95% CI [0.06, 0.48], Z = 2.55, p < .05), than on attitudes, with a Cohen’s d of 0.03 (k = 44, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [0.00, 0.06], Z = 2.12, p < 0.05) (Q = 4.90, p < .05). When giving a . An additional way to assess publication bias is to examine how scholars deal with pressures to publish. Julia_Griepentrog. The first limitation is the comparability of studies. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages. = direkte Ansprache Various studies have shown that published research is often characterized by publication bias, which is why excluding the “grey literature” (unpublished studies and studies published outside widely available journals) generally leads to overestimation of effect sizes (Levine, Asada, & Carpenter, Reference Levine, Asada and Carpenter2009; Polanin, Tanner-Smith, & Hennessy, Reference Polanin, Tanner-Smith and Hennessy2016). Total loading time: 0 Dabei untersuchst du, wie er seine Argumente präsentiert. Nur ein Gutschein pro Kunde. For this reason, the effects of metaphorical frames on political persuasion could in reality be smaller than we have demonstrated in this paper. Critical Discourse Analysis of Barack Obama's First Inaugural Speech Studies on metaphorical-concepts framing are studies that use frames that represent a metaphorical understanding of the issue under investigation. Because the studies that were synthesized in this meta-analysis differed in their research aims and designs, effect sizes were not homogenous (which is not uncommon for meta-analyses; Borenstein et al., Reference Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins and Rothstein2011). They commonly first compile a list of lexical items such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives associated with the source domains of the two models, like “strength” or “purity” (strict father) and “support” or “flourish” (nurturing parent). Auf Studyflix bieten wir dir kostenlos hochwertige Bildung an. Because the choice of level of analysis can impact the presence of metaphorical framing in political discourse, this choice may also influence the presence of effects of metaphorical frames compared to non-metaphorical frames. Disagreements were resolved by means of discussion between the coders. Eine Inhaltszusammenfassung ist nicht Teil einer Redeanalyse. This is a study that would have found negative and/or non-significant results. Aufbau - Wie schreibt man eine speech analysis? Third, abstracts were screened against the inclusion criteria (see below). Talsma, Elise F In this research, the Ideational meta-function of Halliday's systemic functional linguistics (SFL) is used as a theoretical framework. By contrast, the framing manipulations in studies on metaphorical-concepts framing are more generally driven by the comparison between source and target domains. It concludes by discussing the small-but-growing literature on making causal inferences when using text. With a focus on concepts rather than words, studies on metaphorical-concepts frames yielded larger effects than studies on metaphorical-words frames, suggesting that each level of analysis provides its own insights when experimentally testing the premises of important metaphor theories such as conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, Reference Lakoff and Johnson1980) and the theory of moral reasoning (Lakoff, Reference Lakoff2002). Other sets by this creator. Almost one in three political-framing experiments involves this form of metaphorical framing (Brugman, Burgers, & Steen, Reference Brugman, Burgers and Steen2017). We therefore instead classified dependent variables bases on conceptual similarity. While the ‘strategy frame’ and ‘conflict frame’ also reflect the conceptual metaphor of politics is war, they are not by definition made up of war-related words. Außerdem soll durch Pronomen wie us oder we gezeigt werden, dass der Redner (z. The other studies were conducted in a diverse set of mostly European countries. Candel, Jeroen J L Burgers, Christian Lauria, Mark The studies included in this meta-analysis differed in their research aims and designs, which makes the existence of one true effect size unlikely. We found an overall Cohen’s d of 0.11 for both types of metaphorical frames combined, with the largest effects found on beliefs (d = 0.29), followed by attitudes (d = 0.10), and no effects on intentions (d = n.s.). Metaphorical frames can be identified by at least two levels of analysis: words vs. concepts. The researchers' analysis of the speeches also showed that more recent congressional speeches express more positive and negative sentiments than the speeches made in Congress during the 19th century and early 20th century. an! Mein Lehrer kann mir meine Fragen sehr gut erklären. As a result, metaphors may constitute bigger building blocks of metaphorical-concepts frames. table 2. , bei der du verschiedene Aspekte einer Rede untersuchst. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways: Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. Research by Kansas State University shows how politicians from both major parties have changed their political speech from previous centuries. Moreover, discussions are ongoing about whether framing effects are similar across types of topics (e.g., Bechtel, Hainmueller, Hangartner, & Helbling, Reference Bechtel, Hainmueller, Hangartner and Helbling2015). Nachhilfe mit Geld-zurück Garantie: Wenn Sie mit der Leistung Ihres Studienkreises nicht zufrieden sind, teilen Sie uns dies einfach bis zum Ende des ersten Monats mit. The possible categories for the framing topics were chosen based on common newspaper categories: economic policy, foreign (vs. domestic) politics, health and environment, science and education, and security and justice. Javascript muss aktiviert sein um dieses Formular nutzen zu können. Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. Eine speech analysis ist eine besondere Form der Analyse in Englisch Exploring Simile in Political Speeches through Corpus Techniques Feedback und Kommunikation stimmen. Vergleich Medical research advances and health news, The latest engineering, electronics and technology advances, The most comprehensive sci-tech news coverage on the web. Lehrer zum Wunschtermin online fragen! Die englische Übersetzung von „eine Rede halten“ lautet to give a speech und nicht to hold a speech! In the second step of the identification of relevant studies, duplicates of both types of metaphorical-framing publications were removed. The analysis demonstrated that the Cohen’s d for all 91 studies included in the meta-analysis was 0.11 (N = 34,783, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [0.07, 0.14], Z = 6.19, p < .001; see online ‘Appendix D’ for an overview of the overall effect sizes and study characteristics per study). googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1449240174198-2'); }); A computer science research team at K-State analyzed nearly 2 million congressional speeches made by Republican and Democrat legislators from 1873 to 2010. In contrast, the ‘ethical frame’, used to describe political values and ideas, was coded as non-metaphorical given that both the contextual meaning and basic meaning of the word ‘ethical’ refer to the principles used for deciding whether behavior is right or wrong. The search string included search terms for framing, metaphor, politics, and experiments, and contained wildcards to also find plurals and alternative spellings (see online ‘Appendix A’ for detailsFootnote 3). Der könnte zum Beispiel so aussehen: Speech analysis – Beispiel: In his “Victory Speech,“ given on election night on 6 November 2012 in Washington, D.C., Barack Obama addresses the American people with one important message: They need to move forward! 2021. • About halfway trough the speech s/he appeals to the audience by (...) Du benötigst Hilfe in Englisch? This means that the presence of strict-father vs. nurturing-parent reasoning in political discourse is determined based on the presence of expressions that more generally reflect the semantic relations underlying the metaphorical models. An important debate in metaphor research deals with the relationship between linguistic and conceptual metaphors. = Linguistic metaphors are generally defined as cross-domain mappings in the meaning of words. Click the account icon in the top right to: Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The data consisted of 30 speeches delivered by Obama as the representative of the Democratic Party and Romney as . Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor theory was one of the first theories to propose a connection between metaphors in language and cognition. This is often described in the metaphor literature as the “framing power” of metaphors (Semino et al., Reference Semino, Demjén and Demmen2018, p. 627). Diese und weitere PDF-Übungsaufgaben findest du in unserem Selbst-Lernportal. Dabei solltest du auf Pronomen wie you, we und us achten. We conducted a systematic database search and synthesis of the literature to identify relevant studies for the meta-analysis. In this paper, we from now on refer to the two levels of analysis (i.e., words vs. concepts) as: (1) metaphorical-words framing and (2) metaphorical-concepts framing. Sie gilt nur in teilnehmenden Standorten und nicht für stundenweise gebuchte Nachhilfe (Kontingentvertrag). - although = obwohl and Garry 2003; Monroe and Maeda 2004; Diermeier et al. Furthermore, 34.1% of studies involved the topic of economic policy, 30.8% foreign (vs. domestic) politics, 19.8% science and education, 36.3% health and environment, and 33.0% security and justice. Both the Begg and Mazumdar rank correlation test and Egger’s regression report whether there is a linear association between sample size and effect size. Previous overviews of metaphorical-framing effects have mostly focused on metaphorical framing through words (metaphorical-words frames) rather than through concepts (metaphorical-concepts frames). Meine Tochter besucht die Nachhilfe gern, wird immer wieder neu motiviert und versteht den Unterrichtsstoff (Mathe) inzwischen, Nachhilfeunterricht: Einzel- oder Gruppenunterricht, Anleitung für deine Redeanalyse (speech analysis), Aufbau einer Redeanalyse (speech analysis), rhetorischen Mitteln in Sachtexten im Englischen, zur Verhinderung oder Durchsetzung eines Gesetzes (, stylistic devices (repetition, metaphor, euphemism, comparison, irony, sarcasm, ...), kind of language (colloquial language, sublime language), Hausaufgaben-Soforthilfe: 15 Gratis-Minuten. 9b E (Fb) 1 Useful phrases for analyzing texts In the following, I'm going to … [= tell your readers what you are about to do] - As I said before / in the beginning … (etc.) First, 34.1% of the studies used student samples and 15.4% were conducted in a controlled research setting. Exploring manipulative rhetorical choices in Nigerian political speeches We found only a statistically small effect size of the effects of metaphorical frames compared to non-metaphorical frames on beliefs and attitudes. The results showed that this variable potentially moderated metaphorical-framing effects in political discourse. This metaphorical frame was meant to make geo-engineering seem like a common, natural thing, and was thus meant to positively impact recipients’ attitude towards geo-engineering. Corpus techniques, including keyword analysis, collocation and semantic tagging, are used, alongside critical reading of the text. Similarly, Egger’s regression showed that the relationship between sample size and effect size was significant (b = 1.26, SE = 0.36, 95% CI [0.54, 1.98], t(89) = 3.48, p < .001). Instead, these frames can also be recognized by expressions like “campaigning again each other” and “using the issue to gain votes” which can be associated with war-related concepts like enemies (i.e., political opponents) and weapons (i.e., arguments). Sets found in the same folder . The average age was 35 years. We found one difference in effect size between dependent-variable types. Englisch_Abi_Cartoon-Analysis. A study was included when the following inclusion criteria were met. 2021. Speech analysis – Beispiel: By describing a hopeful future for the United States, Obama creates confidence in the minds of the American people and encourages them to work hard to achieve their dreams. Conclusion All in all, the author uses various stylistic devices, language, and persuasive techniques to convince the audience of their standpoint. Fifth, all relevant studies were coded for the variables of interest in this study.Footnote 4 In this stage of the study, studies were included instead of publications because publications could contain more than one relevant experimental study (e.g., Steen, Reijnierse, & Burgers, Reference Steen, Reijnierse and Burgers2014, contained four relevant experiments; for an overview of the number of publications included per stage of the study, see online ‘Appendix B’). Politics. Termeer, Catrien J A M A frame was coded as metaphorical when the name of the frame implied a comparison between a political domain (target domain) and a non-political domain (source domain). Dann vereinbare einen Termin bei einem Lehrer unserer Other relevant participant characteristics such as political preference or political knowledge were not measured in sufficient studies to include in the meta-analysis. The experimental studies on metaphorical framing in political discourse included in this meta-analysis were characterized by the following distributions in study characteristics. Du willst wissen, wofür du das Thema HOW TO AWALYSE; A POLITICAL SPEECH - in contrast to = im Gegensatz zu Concluding one can say, To put it in a nutshell, - The text at hand / the given text is [an extract/excerpt from] … We therefore included studies on metaphorical framing in political discourse that were published in all four types of publication outlets. This specific meta-analysis incorporated studies from a wide range of publication outlets from a diverse set of disciplines that would otherwise be rarely brought together (e.g., linguistics, communication science, political science, psychology). • The author wants to draw the audiences attention to the fact that (...) In line with theories such as the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, Reference Ajzen1991) that predict that some variables are easier to influence than others, we found a difference in persuasiveness of metaphorical-words frames depending on dependent-variable type. The audience is American military veterans and the speeches concern the American forces in Iraq. Many methodological challenges are involved in designing experimental studies on (metaphorical) framing. • All in all the speaker convincly argues her/his case on behalf of (.) Im folgenden Beispiel siehst du, wie du diese Erkenntnisse in deine Analyse einbauen könntest. They then categorize all moral statements in the political discourse that they examine following this taxonomy. Enthält auch Formulierungshilfen. Eine Auflistung hilfreicher Formulierungen zu einer speech analyse. - connotation . Selbst-Lernportal. } Context factors were variables associated with assessing publication bias (publication year, publication outlet) and with the challenges involved in designing experimental studies (type of sample, research setting, and cultural setting). Keine E-Mail erhalten? We will therefore also conduct this analysis for each type of metaphorical frame separately. An seiner These (thesis) und seinen Argumenten (arguments) kannst du zum Beispiel ablesen, ob. →if necessary put the speech into Hinweis auf etw. = 2022. This study thus compares metaphorical-framing effects on political persuasion through words vs. concepts. The research in this paper was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, grant 276-45-005. 2019. Im For this reason, the last research question of this paper reads: RQ3: Which study characteristics moderate the effects of either type of metaphorical frame on political persuasion? →Outline the structure of the speech Accordingly, by comparing metaphorical-framing effects across two levels of analysis (words vs. concepts), this study improves our understanding of the nature and effects of metaphorical framing. We would like to emphasize, however, that studies on both types of frames were not equally represented in this analysis. Structure: Their computer analysis shows that political speeches are in fact very different in their style from political speeches made in Congress several decades ago. 274 pages, $39.27 (paperback), ISBN 978--23-027439-6 - allusion Um einen Kontakt zu den Zuhörern herzustellen, versucht der Redner das Publikum direkt anzusprechen und ein Gefühl von Zusammengehörigkeit aufzubauen. Abstract. Flusberg, Stephen J. Kansas State University. PDF | On Jan 1, 2010, Denise Milizia published Keywords and phrases in political speeches | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate and The title and the date when the speech was given underline the occasion of the speech. These metaphors implied either a positive or a negative position towards certain attitudes or behaviors. hier eine kurze Anleitung. By focusing on the relative positions of political candidates in the polls, the ‘game frame’ draws from the conceptual metaphor of election is a race, without necessarily being manifested by linguistic metaphors like “run for office”, “neck and neck”, and “jockey for position”. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. First, our meta-analysis demonstrates that studying metaphorical framing at both levels of analysis is necessary to advance metaphor research because its outcomes suggests that metaphors can influence individuals’ reasoning through words as well as concepts. How to analyse a political speech - Knowunity For instance, a large body of experimental studies on the embodiment of conceptual metaphors such as affection is heat (Williams & Bargh, Reference Williams and Bargh2008), importance is weight, (Chandler, Reinhard, & Schwarz, Reference Chandler, Reinhard and Schwarz2012), and morality is cleanliness (Lee & Schwarz, Reference Lee and Schwarz2010) has demonstrated that conceptual metaphors may also be grounded in experience. Droog, Ellen Wir wollen dir hier einen Aufbau mit an die Hand geben, der dir helfen soll, deine Redeanalyse zu strukturieren. Zeng, Winnie Huiheng Speech analysis. - in fact = tatsächlich Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways: Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. Shibboleth / Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic. Combined, the effects of both types of metaphorical frames compared to non-metaphorical frames were significantly larger on beliefs, with a Cohen’s d of 0.29 (k = 23, SE = 0.09, 95% CI [0.12, 0.46], Z = 3.31, p < .01) than on attitudes with a Cohen’s d of 0.10 (k = 79, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [0.06, 0.14], Z = 5.23, p < 0.001) (Q = 4.38, p < .05). 39 . Analyse von englischen Werken - 20. Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors. 2021. and Politische Reden werden zu bestimmten Anlässen gehalten. Fourth, the participants were native-speaking, healthy adults, and thus represented the majority of voters. = Antithese Falls du vom Studienkreis keine weiteren Informationen mehr erhalten möchtest, kannst du uns dies jederzeit mit Wirkung in die Zukunft an die E-Mail-Adresse crm@studienkreis.de mitteilen. Bitte wählen Sie einen Studienkreis in Ihrer Nähe aus. •The speaker makes clear that (...) Vorbereitung; Redeanalyse Einleitung - Damit fängst du an; Der Hauptteil einer Speech Analysis; Der Schluss - So beendest du deine speech analysis; Useful phrases und Checkliste für deine Redeanalyse; Speech Analysis FAQ The algorithms also measured the frequency in which different topics were discussed. Randour, François Compared to non-metaphorical frames, metaphorical-concepts frames were found to promote over five times more political persuasion (d = 0.22) than metaphorical-words frames (d = 0.04). This study not only updates their meta-analysis to the twenty-first century, but also adds metaphorical-concepts frames as a second type of metaphorical framing. Schema theory is a useful model as there is a shared cultural, historical and social schema . "useRatesEcommerce": true Wir haben Ihnen eine E-Mail geschickt. Beim Versand der E-Mail ist ein Fehler aufgetreten. Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request. Compared to a fixed-effects model, random-effects models are more conservative. Le français en . Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. The second limitation is that the results of this study may have been influenced by publication bias. ->> • The (...) underline the importance of this passage But since 1976 the reading level of political speeches has been declining consistently, and as of the 21st century, it is below the ninth-grade reading level. Speech analysis • Eine Redeanalyse in Englisch schreiben In Politische Rede: How to write a speech analysis? Sopory and Dillard showed that metaphorical frames are more persuasive than non-metaphorical frames, but they focused only on metaphorical-words frames. Ein Teil der Analyse der Argumentationsstruktur ist es, die Intention des Autors herauszufinden. Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. In deiner speech analysis arbeitest du heraus, wie der Redner in diesen drei Teilen an sein Publikum appelliert. Members of Congress started to gradually adjust their speech styles, addressing the public through the media rather than addressing their fellow legislators. Scholars focusing on words (e.g., Ahrens, Reference Ahrens, Handl and Schmid2011; Cienki, Reference Cienki2005) identify the two models by looking for metaphorical expressions that belong to one of the two metaphorical models. (PDF) THE FUNCTION OF LEXICAL COHESION IN POLITICAL SPEECHES - ResearchGate This document is subject to copyright. Taming the Climate? Corpus analysis of politicians' speech on climate ... Coding categories and reliability scores per variable. You do not currently have access to this chapter. For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines). Hier warten The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. Main body (quotation!) For instance, during the George W. Bush administration, speeches of Democratic legislators expressed more negative sentiments compared to their Republican counterparts. Political speeches are used by politicians to argue, to reason, to sustain their ideas, to continue in power, to oppress people and nations, . To this end, we conducted a meta-analysis because meta-analyses synthesize previous research on the same topic based on strict selection criteria and statistical rules to produce precise estimations of effects (Cumming, Reference Cumming2014). außerdem Meist handelt es sich dabei um eine politische Rede. Dodeigne, Jérémy Moreover, while these claims tend to refer to the effects of linguistic metaphors on individuals’ attitudes and behavior, the findings of our study demonstrate an even smaller effect size for metaphorical-words frames than for metaphorical-concepts frames. According to the study, the decline in reading level and vocabulary of the speeches can be related to the increasing presence of media—including live radio and TV coverage—in Congress beginning in the 1970s. In order to examine whether both approaches to metaphorical framing yield different results and whether the findings of this meta-analysis therefore depend on scholars’ choice of level of analysis, the first two research questions of this paper read: RQ1: To which degree are metaphorical frames more likely to promote political persuasion than non-metaphorical frames?
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